"Li estas komencanto, sed li rapide lernas."
Translation:He is a beginner, but he learns quickly.
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My guess would be Duolingo doesn't consider it the same because "learn" is a verb, while "learner" is a noun, and the Esperanto clearly has lernas as a verb in this sentence.
Second time I incorrectly translate as “He is beginner”, unfortunate mistake I make because my mother tongue is French. Of course, this is invalid in English, but in French I would be more likely to say “Il est débutant”, where “débutant" is an adjective.
Is there an adjective for “komencanto”? (and a corresponding one in English for that matter?)
Yes, you absolutely can! Esperanto is much more flexible about word order than English is (the function of each word is determined by how it's conjugated, rather than where it is in the sentence), so while it typically follows the same word ordering conventions as English, the order can be changed to provide a degree of emphasis and that isn't possible in written English.